Capital : London (and it is the largest
city of the country)
Language: English and Cornish.
Demonym: English.
Sovereign state: United Kingdom.
The largest, the most populous, and the most densely populated of the four countries, which form up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK). It covers an area of 130,395 km² occupying the south-eastern portion of the island of Great Britain. The population is around 49,000,000 and the capital city is London.
It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies North West of England, whilst the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. The North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain which lies in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. In England speaks English and Cornish (Cornish exists in place names, and a knowledge of the language helps to read the landscape. Many Cornish names are still used for children, pets, houses and boats)
England's economy is one of the largest in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial Centre—100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations are based in London. London is the largest financial Centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.
It has over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total. England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. With a density of 407 people per square kilometer, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta. You can see more information about: Description:http://www.historyofengland.net/ Music:http://www.mtv.com/artists/location/London,+England/ Literature:http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188217/English-literature Art:http://magpile.com/art-of-england/
High in the branches of the Great Oak, the hooded man silently draws an arrow from the quiver strapped across his back and notches it to the string of his bow. Hours have passed since he climbed into the arms of the tree before daybreak and, were it not for the thick blanket of fog that swirls around the trees, the sun would be shining down from high in the sky. But a thick covering of mist is exactly what the hooded man wants as he waits, silently, patiently, high on his perch.
He slowly brings the bow level with his face. In other trees around the clearing, four other men – John, Alan, Much and Will - are doing exactly the same. For they have heard hooves on the forest track, have caught the sound of cartwheels slowly lumbering and of voices, as the approaching party call out to each other. They emerge from the white mist like ghostly figures. The hooded man closes one eye, pulls back on the bowstring and stares along the strong, straight shaft of the arrow.
He waits, barely breathing, remembering, a day like this, same weather, same place in this forest. It was two, perhaps three years ago, when it all began, when the people started their fight back against injustice.
That day had found this same man, Robert of Locksley, strolling along the edge of the woodland. He was not long back from foreign lands, fighting the crusades with the blessed King Richard, and he needed to take stock of his lands, the Outwoods.
True, they were not really his lands, for he had to pay rent to the Abbey of St Mary who had ownership of these fertile pastures, after being granted them in the will of the last Lord of the Manor.
For generations Locksley’s family (like so many others) had paid their rent to the Lord and received good service in return.
Then the abbey took over the lands and everything changed. Rents increased, repairs were not done, and those who could not keep up the new payments were cast from their homes, usually in a violent manner. Whether they were young or old, it did not matter.
The Abbot and his friends in Nottingham Castle thought nothing of dragging a young mother and her terrified children from their home; stealing their possessions and then burning it to the ground.
Robert had already had dealings with the Abbot over these matters. Witnessing the eviction of a young couple and their two small children, he was so enraged that he had run straight to confront the Abbot.
“You call yourself a man of God,” he had yelled at the portly priest, “and yet you treat the poor no better than would the devil himself. Your men wreak misery throughout these lands in your name and that of your partner in despair, the Sheriff of Nottingham."
As he had trudged along the forest edge, making a mental note of where walls needed repairing, he saw a movement in the forest and stopped behind a large ash tree to watch. There was a shabbily-clothed man, bow in hand, string pulled taut with an arrow ready to fly. Robin’s eye followed the line of the shot and could see it pointed at a large red deer, one of the Abbot’s own animals.
Robin was about to shout a warning to the man, when there was a loud twang as the bowstring snapped back into place, and the animal fell onto its side, an arrow protruding from its neck.
The man rushed out from the cover of the trees, dropping his weapons as he went.
If the Abbot’s wardens were patrolling the forest and they had heard the deer fall, they would seize him and, before the end of the day, he would be swinging from a noose in the square outside the castle. As he ran, the man turned to look toward the forest edge and Locksley recognised him.
“Will, Will Scarlet, stop, for the Lord’s sake, stop,” he spoke in as loud a whisper as he dare. The man paused for a moment. “If they catch you they’ll string you up before that deer is cold.”
“Locksley … keep out of this. I hear what you say but when my children face death from hunger and they threaten to take my home from me, like so many others, what would you have me do?”
There was a desperate look in the man’s eyes, a look of hunger, a look of suffering, of complete despair. He knew the danger he was in but he had no choice.
“This is how we have to live now. Things have changed while you’ve been away. If we want to put food in our children’s mouths this is the only way we can do it. Either we live in fear of the Abbot’s men or in fear of our children dying before they have barely lived.”
He stared at Robert for another moment then his eyes shifted back to the woodland clearing. “That deer is mine now,” he said and continued his run towards the fallen animal.
From the shelter of the tree behind which he stood, Locksley saw three wardens appear out of the shadows not far behind the running man. They were so silent on their feet that Will had no idea they were closing on him.
In the time it took the three men to halve the distance between themselves and the poacher, Robert had moved to where he had seen Will drop his bow. He had already taken the decision which would shape the rest of his life.
He knew what would happen to this man if caught and he knew what would happen to the children too, if their father ended the day on the end of a rope gasping for breath.
In the time it took him to make the 10 strides to the bow he knew what he must do.
In a flash he had the bow in his hand, an arrow notched to the bowstring and two arrows ready on the ground next to him. He looked up to find that two of the men had seized Will by the arms and were holding him as he struggled to break free.
Robert took aim at the man on the left, pulled back the string and let go. The arrow flew straight, silent and true, thudding into the back of the man.
By the time the other wardens realised what was happening, the second arrow was already winging its way towards the man on the right and, less than three seconds after the first man fell, the second was clutching at his neck as an arrow pierced his body just below the shoulder.
But the third man was behind Will and Robert did not dare to shoot at him.
“Will, get down, get down, let me see him,” shouted Robert. But the third man was already scampering away through the trees to safety and the office of the Abbot.
By the time Robert joined Will, the other two wardens had breathed their last. Will seemed rooted to the ground with fear, unable to move or speak.
“Will, come on, we have to get away from here! There are more of them in this forest for sure. Take out your knife, cut from the animal what you can carry and let’s be gone.”
Their luck was in as they moved silently towards Will’s home. Once they felt they were on safer ground they began to talk.
“You are a fool to risk your life alone like this Will Scarlet, Robert began.
"If you had been caught today.."
“So what do we do then? You have no idea. Your land is safe, you are a freeman and respected for your brave deeds in the King’s army. Who am I? Nobody. Nothing. They think nowt of me and hundreds like me. They feed their hounds better and care more for horses than they do their tenants and servants. They use the law of the land against us however they wish and ignore it whenever it don’t suit them.”
They walked on in silence, then Robert spoke. “You're wrong Will Scarlet. I have just thrown away all I had by saving you from the Sheriff’s rope. The alarm has been raised by now and before sunset they'll be looking for me … and for you too.”
Robert stopped by the edge of the wood at the point where the path to his home broke off from the main track. He stood still, gazing into the distance.
“If they treat the law with such little respect and treat those who try to live by the law with so little care, then perhaps it’s time for lesser folk to do likewise. Bad laws are worse than no laws at all. It’s time we took back what belongs to us, what is rightfully ours.”
Locksley turned his eyes away from the path home, looked along the other track and began to walk.
“I believe my path lies in this direction now,” he said firmly. “Are you with me Will? Can you bring others to our cause?
We don’t have to live in the dirt or under the boot of those who would do us harm. We are many, they are few.
We have cunning, guile, knowledge of this land and these woods.
And these woods can support us. They are rich with food, enough for many to live on and, when times become harder, there will be some who pass by that have more than they need.”
Robert paused to see what his companion had to say but, when there was no response, he continued, his enthusiasm growing with every stride along the path.
“We will never take more than we need to live, not like those who rule us. Fairness and equality will be our watchwords not greed and injustice. We will help our people find a new way to live.
They'll come after us but we will use the woodlands to shelter us, to hide us, to protect us as well as any armour. If they want us, then they will have to brave the forest to find us. And we will be waiting.”
And Robert of Locksley was true to his word.
And that is why this day finds him perched in a tree, waiting with others, as officials from Nottingham make their way through the woods with caskets filled with the taxes they have taken from the poor people of the county.
On one side of the heavy cart sits a soldier, his head lolling, almost asleep.
As they rumble slowly into the clearing, Robert prepares an arrow for a warning shot, aimed just wide enough of the soldier to let him know where the next one might land.
He pulls back the string as far as his bow will allow him, looks along the length of the arrow, chooses a spot a few inches to the left of the guard and holds his breath, waiting, waiting, waiting.
Suddenly the arrow flies straight, silent and true.
As it thuds into its target, the startled guard looks up at the trees and sees a hooded man, bow in hand, an arrow loaded with its tip pointing straight at his head.
‘Jack the Ripper’ is one of the most enduring and famous serial killer legends that still captivates the world’s imagination.
The culprit responsible for slaughtering five prostitutes, and
possibly more, in London’s East End in the autumn of 1888 was never
apprehended. Despite countless investigations which claim to have
definitive evidence of the killer’s identity, the brutal murderer’s name
and motivation are still unproven.
The moniker ‘Jack the Ripper’ originates from a letter written by
someone who claimed to be the Whitechapel butcher, which was published
at the time of the attacks. The killings all took place within a mile of
each other, and involved the districts of Whitechapel, Spitalfields,
Aldgate and the City of London.
Adding to the mystery of the affair is the fact that several letters
were sent by the killer to the London Metropolitan police, taunting them
about his gruesome activities and speculating on further murders to
come. The plethora of theories as to the identity of the killer, ranging
from the famous Victorian painter Walter Sickert to a Polish migrant
and even the grandson of Queen Victoria have all contributed to a
culture of folklore and ghoulish entertainment.
Here we have attached a chart comparing the Genesis and others cultures.
Greek
This culture has different gods that are mentioned
in each of stories or myths of this epoque. Considering the Genesis you can
see series of similarity in facts of
how was the universe,world and human creation.For example: Athenas the God of
earth is like God of Genesis because she created the earth,
plants,water,etc.or Hercules you can compare with Jesus by his nature
semi-god; both are son of God; Hades is the God of the Underworld and you can
compare with Luzbel in the Genesis. Sisyphus is a sinder that always have the
presure of this sin and feel guility.
Egiptian
Atun is a god that is not woman or man, the
offspring of Atun it was like Adam and Eve.These people are considered like God
too because created the other things
like water, plants,etc.Geb you can compare with athenas and Seth with
Luzbel in Genesis.
Inca
The offspring Pachacamac an Pachamama are like Adam
and Eve. There aresibling marriage as well as in the Genesis.the god of fire
is like Luzbel.This culture has different god too.
Chinesse
Miao culture has oral tradition;Heavenly created the
earth with Ziene; A-zie is like Luzbel. This culture has a boat like Noe boat
made by the sister of A-zie.
Indios Navajos
This culture has different worlds .The first world
of this culture is like paradise in Genesis.The second world is occuped by Cat
people that can be the first civilization on Genesis.Begochiddy is like God
because create river and lakes.There are one couple too like Adam and Eve.Coyote
stole the kid of the first couple and killed the kid and of this kid is
created the other world the kid in this case is like God too.
Nordics
Ginnungagap is
a place that function like underworld and paradise of Genesis.Odin is
like God of genesis ,Ymir was like luzbel in Genesis and Ask and Embla is
like Adam and Eve. Midgard is the earth and Yggdrasil was the universe.
Here we put down the strange tradition that we considered weird and bizarres. We do not put it in order because all of them are important and bizarres for this group.
Spend the night on New Year in cemetery
This is considered the world's
weirdest tradition.In Talca in the south of Chile this strange celebration of
new year is very common. For many years there is a tradition to celebrate the
arrival of the New Year with loved ones who have gone before, betting at the
General Cemetery in the city. Tradition that dates back to 1979 when members
of the family Albornoz Opazo, climbed the walls of the cemetery to visit the
grave of the household head in July Opazo Silva, who for many years had been
gravedigger in the same cemetery. Such action began to be imitated by a
growing number of Talca so that in 1995 the administration decided to
formalize complex activity that has become a hallmark of the city during the
holidays last year.
Minka of Tiradura de casa(moving
houses with bulls)
Is a pre-Columbian tradition of
community volunteer work or group for social utility or reciprocal currently
in place in several Latin American countries.Is to move a house. The reasons
for transfer include: the need to approach a road or the acquisition of new
land. The complexity of the task requires several days of work and the
presence of experienced carpenters. To achieve the foundations of the building
are removed and wooden beams that function as a sledge skates are placed.
Doors and windows are removed and the inside is reinforced with struts to not
be deformed during transit. The house oxen, bulls or tied tractors and drag
whatever it takes. Sometimes it is also necessary to carry through the sea.It
attracts the curiosity of tourists and media. So almost every home tiraduras
are around strangers and go on to become social events selling food and
traditional music numbers. Often in the rest of the word Chile minga alludes
only to this particular type.
Putaendo Confetti Carnival
Date: Second week of Febreaury
In Chile, the fifth region,
specifically in Putaendo, celebrated the Confetti Carnival each year. The
tradition consist in people with their hands full of confeti, go around near
of principal square and when they meet in front of the man or woman who are
in love take a big handful of confetti and ... throw it on the face.If
following this courageous act and love do not answer back with confetti is
because it was rejected.
Pagar una manda (a
type ofpilgrimage that consist to go
to a santuary with candless and crawling)
In Chile as in other cultures
have different saints santos.This have sacred places where people go to pray
for a loved one or your family. It is said that when the Holy fulfill your
request you must go to his shrine every year at least once on the date of
canolization.Those places people go walking, crawling, with candles in hand.
They bring you offerings as his hair, pictures, money, etc. The strange thing
is that tradition as people realized. Hundreds of people crawling kilometers
each year.
St John's Eve
A celebration from antiquity
pagan origins, is celebrated in Chile innumerable rituals, meals, drinks and
dances, showing that the sacred night of June 23 has not abandoned his magic
component.
The origin of this festival is
linked to the celebration of the arrival of the summer solstice in the
northern hemisphere, for which bonfires they lit up to pay tribute to the sun
and purify the sins of man. This commemoration later was adopted by the
Catholic Church, giving it a new investiture: the birth of John the Baptist,
24 June.
Many are the beliefs that are
related to tonight, and countless traditions that are celebrated. Here are
some of them:
• Place 3 potatoes under the bed, one unpeeled, the
other half peeled and the third peeled whole. When collect them, if you take
the unpeeled you'll have a lot of money If you pick the half peeled, you will
spend economic hardship, and if you touch peeled whole, you're very poor all
year round.
• For women, there are special rites given a salt bath
to clean energy; if you want love comes to their lives, light a pink candle;
light a brazier in the backyard and burn some article of their clothing, so
that all the evil that envelops leave; if you want the fortune and money
abound, light a green candle.
• There are other less superstitious rites and
pantagruelian. For example, in Ancud and Castro, Chiloe, announce
celebrations with the classic dishes of pork, potatoes and wine, with
performances by folk ensembles to dance at night, in addition to performing
enjoyable tests.
There are two chart one with the Chilean tradition and other with the England tradition
Chilean Traditions
Tradition
Rodeo Is a traditional sport in Chile. It was declared the national sport in
1962. It has since thrived, especially in the more rural areas of the
country. Chilean rodeo is different from the rodeo found in North America. In
Chilean rodeo, a team consisting of two riders and two horses ride laps
around an arena trying to stop a calf, pinning it against large cushions.
Points are earned for every time the steer is properly driven around the
corral, with deductions for faults. Rodeos are conducted in a crescent-shaped
corral called a medialuna.
Rituals
Many popular religious celebrations and processions
are held in Chile. One of the most colorful is the Festival of La Tirana. This festival is
celebrated for three days in July in the village of La Tirana, some 40 miles
inland from the northern port of Iquique, near the Atacama Desert. This
celebration is strongly influenced by the carnival of Oruro, Bolivia. During
the celebrations, some 150,000 people dance through the streets in colorful
costumes and devil masks. The Festival of La Tirana is an expression of the
religious blend between Catholicism and ancient indigenous practices.
Ceremonies
Te Deum Ecuménico de Fiestas
Patrias is a ceremony, which is organized by the Catholic Church and led by
the Archbishop of Santiago, has taken place since 1811 when it was started by
José Miguel Carrera. In 1971, President Salvador Allende asked that the
celebration become more ecumenical, encompassing the diverse religious
beliefs throughout the country. The ceremony itself begins at 11:00am in the
Plaza de Armas. On September 19, a military parade takes place at Parque
O'Higgins, overseen by the President of Chile.
Social norms
Chileans are in general less formal than other Latin
Americans, they definitively follow certain rules in social gatherings.
During formal occasions people shake hands in a restrained way, while good
friends may shake hands and embrace. Chilean women normally salute
acquaintances with one kiss on the right cheek. Chileans commonly use the
formal "you" to address persons, independently of the
interlocutor's social status. Chileans
are quite restrained in public spaces and restaurants and it is particularly
bad form to talk too loudly. Waiters are called "señor" and are addressed
in formal "you" form.
Customs
Food in Daily Life: The first
meal of the day is breakfast, which mostly consists of rather light fare
including toasted bread with butter and instant coffee with milk. Lunch is
the big meal of the day; traditionally two main dishes are served. The first
course may be a salad of some kind. A common salad is the ensalada chilena,
including sliced onions, chopped and peeled tomatoes, and fresh cilantro. The
second dish generally includes beef or chicken. Around 5:00 P.M. Chileans
take once, an afternoon tea with bread. Around 9:00 P.M. most families serve
dinner, which is usually a single but substantial dish.
Beliefs
A large majority of Chileans (73 percent) are
affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. Some 15 percent of the population
identifies itself with several Protestant groups. This includes Anglicans and
Lutherans, but the vast majority of Chilean Protestants (90 percent) belong
to the Pentecostal Church. Another 4 percent of the population belongs to
other religious groups (Jews, Muslims, and Greek Orthodox), while 8 percent
claim not to profess any religion. Chileans profoundly respect the religious
beliefs of others, and religion seldom constitutes a source for conflict or
disagreement.
Worldviews
Each part of Chile (zona Norte,
zona Centro ,zona Sur y zona Austral) has a particular way to see the world. Every
Chilean people know that the Chilean essence of population has characteristic
like : to be unpuntual; to be good friend and very close to the other people.
Sometimes the Chilean people to the rest of the world are qualified like: thieves
or disordered.
England traditions
Traditions
Guy Fawkes Night (Bonfire
Night)
On the 5th of November,
the English celebrate Guy Fawkes Night.
Guy Fawkes was not a hero, however.
In fact, Guy Fawkes is one of the most famous traitors is English history Guy Fawkes Night also has another
tradition. Children make ugly dummies,
called "guys," out of old clothes stuffed with newspaper. They carry them through the streets and
throw them in the bonfire!
The Trooping of the
Colors(The Queen's Birthday)
The Trooping of the
Colors occurs on the second Saturday in June. This is the day when the English celebrate
the Queen's birthday. There is a
colorful parade where the Queen's soldiers march by on horseback to honor
her. The festival is watched on television
by millions of people in England.
Rituals
Maypoles
A maypole is a tall
wooden pole erected as a part of various European folk festivals, around
which a maypole dance often takes place. The festivals may occur on May Day
or Pentecost (Whitsun), although in some countries it is instead erected at
Midsummer. In some cases the maypole is a permanent feature that is only
utilised during the festival.
Mummers
Mummers Plays are seasonal folk plays performed by troupes
of actors known as mummers or guisers . They are sometimes performed in the
street but more usually as house-to-house visits and in public houses.
Ceremonies
Epiphany
A service of Holy Communion is
celebrated on 6 January (Epiphany) each year in the Chapel Royal, St James's
Palace, when an offering of gold, frankincense and myrrh is made on behalf of
The Queen. These are the gifts offered, according to tradition, by the Magi
to the infant Jesus.
Garden parties
With tea, cakes and a beautiful
garden to stroll in, garden parties are among the most relaxed and informal
Royal events.Every summer, The Queen hosts at least three at Buckingham
Palace, as well as one at the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh.
Social Norms
Meeting and Greeting
•The handshake is the common form of greeting.
•The British might seem a little stiff and formal at first.
•Avoid prolonged eye contact as it makes people feel uncomfortable.
Dining Etiquette
•Although the British
value punctuality, you may arrive 10-15 minutes later than invited to dinner.
However, if going to a restaurant be on time.
•Do not rest your elbows
on the table.
•If you have not finished
eating, cross your knife and fork on your plate with the fork over the knife.
Customs
Meals
People in England tend to have a light “continental” breakfast:
cereal and/or toast, perhaps fruit juice and tea or coffee. The traditional
“English breakfast” is a 3-course meal and a lot of homestays may not be
prepared to cook this.Lunch is normally a light meal, though some people like
to eat well at this time.Dinner is generally the main meal of the day, and
would consist of 2 or 3 courses. It’s not unusual to miss either the starter
or the dessert and have just 2 courses, and it’s not normal to have bread on
the table or to drink wine on a daily basis.
Afternoon Tea
Afternoon tea, that most
quintessential of English customs is, perhaps surprisingly, a relatively new
tradition. Whilst the custom of
drinking tea dates back to the third millennium BC in China and was
popularised in England during the 1660s by King Charles II and his wife the
Portuguese Infanta Catherine de Braganza, it was not until the mid 17th
century that the concept of ‘afternoon tea’ first appeared. Afternoon tea was
introduced in England by Anna, the seventh Duchess of Bedford, in the year
1840.
Beliefs
Church
The faith of Anglicans is
founded in the Scriptures and the Gospels, the traditions of the Apostolic
Church, the historical episcopate, the first seven ecumenical councils and
the early Church Fathers
The Beasts and Monster Dogs of Britain
There are many stories
and have been many sightings over many years of mysterious beasts, big
panther-like cats and monster black dogs living in and around the south west
of England. These strange creatures are even now supposed to inhabit the
wilder moorland areas of the counties of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall -
savagely gored pet cats and dogs, sheep and other farm animals, and strange
howls in the middle of the night have all been reported in the last ten or so
years on the Quantock Hills, Exmoor, Dartmoor, and Bodmin Moor.
Worldviews
Individual
Self-reliance, responsible for
conduct of own life; independence
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Comfortable with ambiguous
situations; risk-taking is encouraged
After of read these different chart you can see the big differences of two cultures. Each culture has particular things that makes unique. But, here you see the influence of Spain in Chile different part of Chilean traditions, and the language influence too. You are Thinking why is language a influence of these culture? Fist the society is based on language and the culture is made by the society. Second Chile and England has different language: Spanish and English; you know that English is direct to de point and this characteristic you can see in the English people (to be polite) Second part of first task We chosen three traditions that we aren´t follow : Rodeo: one of the biggest reason is the animal violence that you see in this game.Also, this tradition with the time is lost.
Religous rituals: because each member of the group has different point of view about religion.
Wear the typically clothes: Now is very difficult see a huaso or chilote with the her / his typically clothes because is lost with the globalitation and the discrimination that is made by the young Chilean.
Born: 9 May 1874 Kensington, London Died: 2 March 1939 Kensington, London Field: Archaeologist and Egyptologist Known for: Discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun
was an English archaeologist and Egyptologist who became world famous after discovering the intact tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh Tutankhamun (colloquially known as "King Tut" and "the boy king") in November 1922.
Tutankhamun's tomb
After three hard years for Carter, in 1907 Lord Carnarvon employed Carter to supervise Carnarvon's Egyptian excavations in the Valley of the Kings. The intention of Gaston Maspero, who introduced the two, was to ensure that Howard Carter imposed modern archaeological methods and systems of recording.
KV62 in the Valley of the Kings
Carnarvon financed Carter's work in the Valley of the Kings to 1914, but until 1917 excavations and study were interrupted by World War I. Following the end of World War I, Carter aggressively resumed his work.
After several years of finding little, Lord Carnarvon (Carter's
benefactor) became dissatisfied with the lack of results. In 1922,
Carnarvon informed Carter he had one more season of funding to search
the Valley of the Kings and find the tomb.
On 4 November 1922, Howard Carter's excavation group found steps Carter hoped led to Tutankhamun's tomb (subsequently designated KV62) (the tomb that would be considered the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the Valley of the Kings).
He wired Lord Carnarvon to come, and on 26 November 1922, with
Carnarvon, Carnarvon's daughter and others in attendance, Carter made
the "tiny breach in the top left hand corner" of the doorway, and was
able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold
and ebony treasures were still in place. He made the breach into the
tomb with a chisel his grandmother had given him for his seventeenth
birthday. He did not yet know at that point whether it was "a tomb or
merely a cache", but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two
sentinel statues. When Carnarvon asked "Can you see anything?", Carter
replied with the famous words: "Yes, wonderful things."
Carter's house in the Theban Necropolis
The next several months were spent cataloging the contents of the antechamber under the "often stressful" oversight of Pierre Lacau, director general of the Department of Antiquities of Egypt.
On 16 February 1923, Carter opened the sealed doorway, and found that
it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of
the sarcophagus
of Tutankhamun. All of these discoveries were eagerly covered by the
world's press, but most of their representatives were kept in their
hotels; only H. V. Morton was allowed on the scene, and his vivid descriptions helped to cement Carter's reputation with the British public.
Carter's own notes and photographic evidence, indicate that he, Lord
Carnarvon and Lady Evelyn Herbert entered the burial chamber shortly
after the tomb's discovery and before the official opening.
Later work and death
The Grave of Howard Carter
The clearance of the tomb with its thousands of objects continued
until 1932. Following his sensational discovery, Howard Carter retired
from archaeology and became a part-time agent for collectors and
museums, including the Cleveland Museum of Art and the Detroit Institute of Arts. He visited the United States in 1924, and gave a series of illustrated lectures in New York City and other cities in the United States that were attended by very large and enthusiastic audiences, sparking Egyptomania in America.
He died of lymphoma in Kensington, London, on 2 March 1939 at the age of 64. The archaeologist's natural death so long after the opening of the
tomb, despite being the leader of the expedition, is the piece of
evidence most commonly put forward by sceptics to refute the idea of a "curse of the pharaohs" plaguing the party that might have "violated" Tutankhamun's tomb.
Carter is now buried in Putney Vale Cemetery in London.
On his gravestone is written: "May your spirit live, May you spend
millions of years, You who love Thebes, Sitting with your face to the
north wind, Your eyes beholding happiness," and "O night, spread thy wings over me as the imperishable stars".
Born: 1888 Bucklesham, Suffolk, England Died: 1977 Rickinghall, Suffolk, England Known for: Excavations at Sutton Hoo
was a farmer, archaeologist, amateur astronomer and author who most famously discovered the buried ship at Sutton Hoo and excavated its sandy outline on the eve of war in 1939.
Although he has been described as an 'amateur archaeologist', his
work as such was frequently paid. He was, indeed, one of the first to
make a career as a paid excavation employee for a provincial museum.
Although this was his second career and was interrupted by the War, it
spanned more than thirty years. After the failure of his smallholding in
around 1932, at about the time when he published his work on Astronomical Atlases
(a subject of interest since childhood), he began to investigate the
countryside near his home in north Suffolk in search of Roman remains.
After the discovery, excavation and successful removal to Ipswich Museum of a Roman kiln at Wattisfield, Basil Brown worked for a short time with Mr Gale at Stuston, on the Norfolk-Suffolk
border, before being taken on, on a near full-time basis, by Mr Guy
Maynard, Curator of Ipswich Museum. He was paid weekly and worked for
long seasons on the agreed payment arrangement from 1935–1939, his
principal task being the excavation of a Roman villa he had discovered at Stanton Chair,
Suffolk. These excavations were laid open each year and temporary
museums were set up on the site for visitors. Many well-known
archaeologists, while still students, worked for Mr Brown on seasonal
visits to the site.
Excavations at Sutton Hoo
In 1938 Basil Brown was by agreement released from his employment by
Ipswich Museum for a season during which he was paid by Mrs Edith May Pretty to excavate three of the mounds on her estate at Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge.
In these months he excavated three disturbed burials or cremation
burials of the sixth or early seventh centuries which had been plundered
of most of their contents. One had apparently contained a wooden ship
held together with iron rivets, though their positions did not permit a
reconstruction of the ship. It was soon realised that the site was
either of Anglo-Saxon or Viking age,
but that question was not decided either by Mr Brown or the Ipswich
Museum authorities (who maintained supervision of his work) during the
first season. At the end of this work, Mr Brown returned immediately to
his work for the Museum, at Stanton Chair.
In Spring 1939 Mr Brown returned to the employment of Mrs Pretty for a
second season at Sutton Hoo, and made the wonderful discovery of the
27-meter-long ship impression in the sandy soil beneath the largest
mound. In June the site was visited by Charles Phillips,
who some weeks later began his campaign to clear the undisturbed but
crushed burial chamber of an Anglo-Saxon potentate of the early seventh
century AD (thought by many to be the grave of Raedwald of East Anglia). Charles Phillips was employed by the Office of Works, and led a team including W.F. Grimes, O.G.S. Crawford, Stuart
and Peggy Piggot, and assisted by many other famous academics and
archaeologists who were admitted to the site while the story was kept
secret from the general public.
Basil Brown maintained a respectful relationship with Mrs Pretty, and
completed his work for her by remaining until the very end, after the
experts had finished with his discovery, and carrying out her
instructions. He was obliged to steer a careful path among the scholars
and other authorities, for there were differences between Phillips and
the Ipswich Museum representatives. Mr Brown gave his witness at the treasure trove
inquest in September 1939, when (after a newspaper leak) the
astonishing treasures were first seen by the general public in
attendance. He worked again at Stanton Chair for short periods late in
1939 and during 1940.
After Sutton Hoo
During World War II, Basil Brown performed a few archaeological tasks
for the Museum, but was principally engaged in other forms of War work
in Suffolk. Afterwards he was again employed by the Museum, nominally as
an 'attendant', but with archaeological, external duties. Until the
1960s he steadily continued the systematic study of archaeological
remains in Suffolk, cycling everywhere, and preparing an extremely
copious (if sometimes indecipherable) record of information pertaining
to it. Out of this was developed the County Sites and Monuments Record
of Suffolk, the basis of the record as it exists today. He encouraged
groups of children to work on his sites, and introduced a whole
generation of youngsters to the processes of archaeology and the
fascination of what lay under the ploughed fields of the county.
Much has been said or written of the collision of social classes
which took place at Sutton Hoo in 1939, and their impact on the
relationships of the excavators. Mr Brown was descended from a long line
of yeoman farmers of Suffolk. The recipient of a country education, and
self-taught in astronomy and in several European languages, although he
possessed a broad East Anglian accent, his powers of observation and
deduction, and his good sense and wise conduct, generally earned him the
respect of discerning authorities.
Basil Brown made an immense contribution to the development of
Suffolk archaeology, and was deservedly proud of the wonderful discovery
of 1939 which he had been lucky enough to make.
The iconic helmet discovered by Brown's excavations in East Anglia
Sources
The story of the Sutton Hoo excavation and Brown's part in it has been told in various ways:
Basil Brown's Diaries – reprinted in R.L.S. Bruce-Mitford, 1974, Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Archaeology (Gollancz, London), 141–169.
Full descriptive and interpretative catalogue and monograph – R.L.S. Bruce-Mitford, 1975, 1978, 1983, The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial (London, British Museum), 3 Vols in 4.
Searching account of the excavation and discovery – A.C. Evans, 1986, The Sutton Hoo Ship-Burial (London: British Museum).
C. Green, 1963, Sutton Hoo: The Excavation of a Royal Ship-Burial (London).
R.A.D. Markham, 2002, Sutton Hoo through the Rear View Mirror
(Sutton Hoo Society) – a careful account of the discovery and
controversy, drawing only upon reliably verified evidence from
contemporary records and sources.
Peppy Barlow, 'The Sutton Hoo Mob' – a play with music, written for
the Eastern Angles Theatre Company and toured in Suffolk in 1993 and
again in 2005, based specifically on the central characters of the
controversy.
C.W. Phillips, 1987, My Life in Archaeology, p70ff.
The National Trust Visitor Centre, Sutton Hoo, Exhibition Hall.(2001)
S.J. Plunkett, 'Basil John Wait Brown', article in Oxford DNB.
J. Preston, 2007, The Dig (Viking) – a novel dramatising the events.
C J Durrant, 2005 'Basil Brown, Astronomer, Archaeologist, Enigma' – a biography
Born:
3 March 1883 Westminster, London Died: 10 October 1971
Sir Cyril Lodowic Burt was an English educational psychologist who made contributions to educational psychology and statistics.
Burt is known for his studies on the heritability of IQ.
Shortly after he died, his studies of inheritance and intelligence came
into disrepute after evidence emerged indicating he had falsified research data. Some scholars have asserted that Burt did not commit fraud.
Work in educational psychology
In 1908, Burt took up the post of Lecturer in Psychology and
Assistant Lecturer in Physiology at Liverpool University, where he was
to work under the famed physiologist Sir Charles Sherrington.In 1909 Burt made use of Charles Spearman's
model of general intelligence to analyse his data on the performance of
schoolchildren in a battery of tests. This first research project was
to define Burt's life's work in quantitative intelligence testing, eugenics, and the inheritance of intelligence.
One of the conclusions in his 1909 paper was that upper-class children
in private preparatory schools did better in the tests than those in the
ordinary elementary schools, and that the difference was innate.
In 1913, Burt took the part-time position of a school psychologist for the London County Council
(LCC), with the responsibility of picking out the 'feeble-minded'
children, in accordance with the Mental Deficiency Act of 1913.
He notably established that girls were equal to boys in general
intelligence. The post also allowed him to work in Spearman's
laboratory, and received research assistants from the National Institute
of Industrial Psychology, including Winifred Raphael.
Burt was much involved in the initiation of child guidance in Great Britain and his 1925 publication The Young Delinquent led to opening of the London Child Guidance Clinic in Islington in 1927.In 1924 Burt was also appointed part-time professor of educational psychology at the London Day Training College (LDTC), and carried out much of his child guidance work on the premises.
Further reading
Biographies
Burt, C.L. (1949). An autobiographical sketch. Occupational Psychology, 23, 9-20.
Valentine, Charles (1965). "Cyril Burt: A Biographical Sketch and Appreciation." In C. Banks, & P.L. Broadhurst, (Eds.), Stephanos: Studies in Psychology Present to Cyril Burt (pp. 11–20). London: University of London.
Hearnshaw, L.S. (1979). Cyril Burt: Psychologist. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Also published London: Hodder and Stoughton.
Fancher, R.E. (1985) The Intelligence Men: Makers of the I.Q. Controversy. New York: Norton.
Scarr, S. (1994). "Burt, Cyril L.", in R.J. Sternberg (ed.), Encyclopedia of Intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 231–234). New York: Macmillan.
Books by Burt
Burt, C.L. (1917). The Distribution and Relations of Educational Abilities. London: The Campfield Press.
Burt, C.L. (1921). Mental and Scholastic Tests. London: P. S. King. Republished and revised (4th ed.). London: Staples, (1962).
Burt, C.L. (1923). Handbook of Tests for Use in Schools. London: P. S. King. Republished (2nd ed.) London: Staples, (1948).
Burt, C.L. (1925). The Young Delinquent.
London: University of London Press. Republished and revised (3rd ed.)
London: University of London Press, (1938); (4th ed.) Bickley:
University of London Press, (1944).
Burt, C.L. (1930). The Study of the Mind. London: BBC.
Burt, C.L. (1934). How the Mind Works. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company. Republished London: Allen & Unwin (1945).
Burt, C.L. (1935). The Subnormal Mind. London: Oxford University Press. Republished London: Oxford University Press, (1937).
Burt, C.L. (1937). The Backward Child. London: University of London Press. Republished (5th ed.) London: University of London Press, (1961).
Burt, C.L. (1940). The Factors of the Mind: An Introduction to Factor Analysis in Psychology. London: University of London Press.
Burt, C.L. (1946). Intelligence and Fertility. London.
Burt, C.L. (1957). The Causes and Treatments of Backwardness (4th ed.). London: University of London Press.
Burt, C.L. (1959). A Psychological Study of Typography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Burt, C.L. (1968). Psychology and Psychical Research: the Seventeenth Frederic W. H. Myers Memorial Lecture, The Society for Psychical Research.
Burt, C.L. (1975). The Gifted Child. New York: Wiley and London: Hodder and Stoughton
Burt, C.L. (1975). ESP and Psychology. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Edited by Anita Gregory.
Articles by Burt
Burt, C.L. (1909). "Experimental Texts of General Intelligence," The British Journal of Psychology, 3, 94–177.
Burt, C.L. (1920). "The Definition and Diagnosis of Mental Deficiency"; "Part II," Studies in Mental Inefficiency, 1, 47–54, 69–77.
Burt, C.L. (1920). "The Neurotic School Child," Studies in Mental Inefficiency, 4, 7–12.
Burt, C.L. (1923). "The Causal Factors of Juvenile Crime," British Journal of Medical Psychology, 3, 1–33.
Burt, C.L. (1923). "Delinquency and Mental Defect", British Journal of Medical Psychology, 3, 168–178.
Burt, C.L. (1949). "Alternative Methods of Factor Analysis and their Relations to Pearson’s Method of ‘Principal Axes’," British Journal of Psychology, 2, 98–121.
Burt, C.L. (1951). "General Psychology." In Dingle, Herbert (ed.) A Century of Science, (pp. 272-286). Hutchinson's Scientific And Technical Publications.
Burt, C.L. (1954). "The Differentiation of Intellectual Ability," The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 24, 76–90.
Burt, C.L. (1955). "The Evidence for the Concept of Intelligence," British Journal of Educational Psychology, 25, 158–177.
Burt, C.L. (1958). "Definition and Scientific Method in Psychology", British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 11, 31–69.
Burt, C.L., & Gregory, W.L. (1958). "Scientific Method in Psychology: II", British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 11, 105–128.
Burt, C.L. (1958). "The Inheritance of Mental Ability", American Psychologist, 13, 1–15.
Burt, C.L. (1959). "General Ability and Special Aptitudes", Educational Research, 1, 3–16.
Burt, C.L. (1959). "The Examination at Eleven Plus", British Journal of Education Studies, 7, 99–117.
Burt, C.L. (1960). "The Mentally Subnormal", Medical World, 93, 297–300.
Burt, C.L. (1961). "Factor Analysis and its Neurological Basis", British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 14, 53–71.
Burt, C.L. (1962). "Francis Galton and his Contributions to Psychology," British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 15, 1–49.
Burt, C.L., & Williams, E.L. (1962). "The Influence of Motivation on the Results of Intelligence Tests", British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 15, 129–135.
Burt, C.L. (1963). "Is Intelligence Distributed Normally?", British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 16(2), 175–190.
Burt, C.L. (1966). "The Genetic Determination of Differences in
Intelligence: A Study of Monozygotic Twins Reared Together and Apart," British Journal of Psychology, 57, 137–153.
Burt, C.L. (1966). "Parapsychology and its Implications," International Journal of Neuropsychiatry, 2, 363-377.
Burt, C.L. (1968). "An Illustration of Factor Analysis". In Butcher, Harold J. Human Intelligence: Its Nature and Assessment (pp. 66–71). London: Methuen.
Burt, C.L. (1969). "Intelligence and Heredity: Some Common Misconceptions," Irish Journal of Education, 3, 75–94.
Burt, C.L. (1971). "Quantitative Genetics in Psychology", British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, 24, 1–21.
Burt, C.L. (1972). "Inheritance of General Intelligence", American Psychologist, 27, 175–190.
Blinkhorn, S.F. (1995). "Burt and the Early History of Factor Analysis", in N.J. Mackintosh, Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed?, Oxford University Press.
Brace, C. Loring (2005). "Sir Cyril Burt: Scientific Fraud", in Race is a Four Lettered Word, the Genesis of the Concept, Oxford University Press.
Butler, Brian E., & Petrulis, Jennifer (1999). "Some Further Observations Concerning Sir Cyril Burt," British Journal of Psychology, 90, 155–160.
Cohen, John (1977). "The Detractors", Encounter, 48(3), pp. 86–89.
Eysenck, H.J. (1977). "The Case of Sir Cyril Burt," Encounter, 48(1), pp. 19–23.
Fletcher, Ronald (1991). Science, Ideology, and the Media. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.
Gould, S.J. (1996). "The Real Error of Cyril Burt Factor Analysis and the Reification of Intelligence," in The Mismeasure of Man, W. W. Norton & Company.
Hartley, James and Rooum, Donald (1983). "Sir Cyril Burt and Typography: A Re-evaluation", British Journal of Psychology, 74, 203–212.
Jensen, Arthur R. (1977). "Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence?," The Phi Delta Kappan, 58(6), pp. 471, 492.
Jensen, Arthur R. (1978). "Sir Cyril Burt in Perspective," American Psychologist, Vol. 33(5), 499–503.
Jensen, Arthur R. (1995). "IQ and Science: The Mysterious Burt Affair". In Mackintosh, Nicholas John (ed.), Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed? (Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press), 1–12. ISBN 0-19-852336-X.
Joynson, R.B. (1989). The Burt Affair. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01039-X.
Lamb, Kevin (1992). "Biased Tidings: The Media and the Cyril Burt Controversy", Mankind Quarterly, 33, 203.
Mackintosh, Nicholas (editor) (1995). Cyril Burt: Fraud or Framed?. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852336-X.
Rowe, D., & Plomin, R. (1978). "The Burt Controversy: The Comparison of Burt's Data on IQ with Data from Other Studies", Behavior Genetics, 8, 81–83.
Rushton, J.P. (1994). "Victim of Scientific Hoax (Cyril Burt and the Genetic IQ Controversy)" at the Wayback Machine (archived October 13, 2004), Society, 31, 40–44.
Rushton, J.P. (2002). "New Evidence on Sir Cyril Burt: His 1964 Speech to the Association of Educational Psychologists", Intelligence, 30, 555–567.
Tizard, Jack (1976). "Progress and Degeneration in the IQ Debate: Comments on Urbach", The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 27: 251–258.
Tucker, W. H. (1994). "Fact and Fiction in the Discovery of Sir Cyril Burt's Flaws," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 30, 335–347.
Tucker, W. H. (1997). "Re-reconsidering Burt: Beyond a Reasonable Doubt," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 33(2) 145–162.
Woolridge, Adrian (1994). Measuring the Mind: Education and Psychology in England, c.1860-c.1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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